STUDIES IN PHYSICAL CULTURE AND TOURISM

Vol. 12, No. 2, 2005

Events of from modern Ukrainian history, especially the so-called democratic “orange revolution” during which Wiktor Juszczenko came to power, can be seen as fulfillment of dreams of many generations of Ukrainians: dreams of an independent country, activating processes of democratization, getting rid of totalitarian influence in all branches of social life, and building a new democratic Ukrainian state^{[ 1]}. The new developments imply the need of studying Ukrainian cultural history and the depth of Ukrainian transformations, traditions and ideas. Physical education movement in Ukraine made its appearance at the end of the 19th century. The territory of present-day Ukraine was then partitioned by different states, which resulted in multidirectional and diverse levels of development in different regions of the country: Galicia, Bukovina, the Trans-Carpathians, and the Dniester basin. The roots of physical culture of nations of the last region can be connected with remnants of a stadium excavated by the Black Sea, physical upbringing of young royal princes in the 12th century as well as with physical exercises of the Cossacks, who were famous for excellent defensive skills, and many other historical signs of Ukrainian physical culture.

While analyzing historical links between Ukrainians and Poles living within the eastern borders of Poland it is easy to notice mutual influences and mingling of both cultures in all aspects of life, including the sphere of physical culture. However, in this area the Poles were well ahead the development and achievements of the Ukrainians. Many historical elements of Ukrainian physical culture have become the basis for organization of the system of physical education in present-day Ukraine.

In the Galician period Ukrainian activists paid special attention to development of education^{[ 2]}. Since 1893 they had their representative, Włodzimierz Barwiński^{[ 3]}, in the State School Council. In 1881 the activists of “Proswita” established the “Russian Pedagogical Society” (in 1912 it changed its name to the Ukrainian Pedagogical Society), aimed at popularization of education in rural areas. The Society provided access to education in city schools for children of poor Ukrainian peasants. In 1868, 2,469 schools were operating in Galicia, in 1,293 schools Ukrainian was the language of instruction. In 1913 there were already 2,469 Ukrainian-language schools. They were mostly one- or two-grade folk schools in which teachers were very badly paid^{[ 4]}. Secondary schools featured even greater disproportions to the Ukrainians’ disadvantage. In 1912 there were 296 Polish secondary and professional schools (one school for every 52,000 Poles), and only 12 Ukrainian ones, which means that there was one school for every 300,000 Ukrainians. In 1900 there were only 1,803 Ukrainian teachers out of all 8,134 teachers in Galicia [17]. These disproportions reflected the condition of Ukrainian education in Galician times [10, 11].

The beginnings of organized Ukrainian physical education date back to the 19th century. Its formal development started with publishing a memorandum by the State School Council (SSC) which obliged school authorities to include physical education classes in the curricula of folk schools and pedagogical colleges^{[ 5]}. This regulation was supplemented with guidelines of Austrian authorities. In 1890 the SSC issued a regulation concerning introduction of motor games in secondary schools [2, pp. 83-84, 92]. In the same year all teachers became obliged to maintain control over the students who participated in recreational forms of physical exercise. On the other hand, the school headmasters were supposed to include reports on conducted physical education classes in their general annual reports on the functioning of the schools. In 1892 the daily schedule was changed from a two-part to a one-part schedule (with no lunch break), which allowed the schools to introduce sports classes in the afternoon after regular classes [8, p. 31]. For each grade there was one class of physical education. Since 1901 there were two lessons of physical education per grade every week in junior high schools. Due to lack of qualified PE teachers in folk schools as well as lack of gyms the lessons were conducted with certain limitations. According to the SSC report concerning the school year of 1873/1874, only in 182 of all 2,420 folk schools PE lessons were conducted (7.52%); and in the school year of 1898/1899 in 302 (7.09%) of all 4,255 schools. The SSC report concerning junior high schools and grammar schools stated that of 21,031 students in those schools only 5,764 (27.4%)^{[ 6]} participated in compulsory physical education classes [7, p. 31]. Despite the regulation from 1871 and the note in the statute about compulsory physical education teaching in pedagogical colleges, PE classes were almost completely neglected. As it can be seen in the assessment of the physical development of adolescents made by the SSC in 1904, since the introduction of obligatory physical exercise in certain schools PE lessons were not conducted at all. In some secondary schools only 10 days were devoted to gymnastics, and the students’ participation did not exceed 20%. The reason for this state of affairs was lack of gyms, teachers as well as the fact that teachers did not have enough control over pupils, especially after classes. The report indicated an increase of 50-60% in the number of pupils participating in sports games [18, pp. 46-47]. For the purpose of detailed evaluation of the condition of physical education on 19th March 1904 the Viceregency issued a rescript which obliged the school headmasters to assess this condition and provide a written statement within one month [16]. In the school year of 1904/1905 Ewhien Ljubowicz, the headmaster of Liceum Rurkowo Institut dlja diwczat in Peremyśl (secondary school for girls), stated in his report that “body exercises” had been conducted as frequently as 8 hours per week (2 hours per grade) [30, p. 24].

Bad condition of the education system in Galicia restrained the physical development of both Polish and Ukrainian youths to a high degree. The situation of Galician education system was critical. On 14^th April 1907 Płażek, Deputy of the Vice-regent, appealed for “…public generosity of both nations of the country in establishing institutions to provide poorer school youths, especially peasant children, with proper living conditions and possibility of physical work. The number of boarding schools has recently increased significantly especially in the eastern part of the country. Societies established for this purpose in many cities should provide poor pupils with cheap and healthy food and medical care”[19, pp. 88-89]. Of all Polish and Ukrainian junior high schools the worst hygienic conditions were in the 2^nd Polish and Russian Junior High School in Tarnopol[20, p. 32]. Because of the harsh conditions compulsory physical education was suspended and PE classes were conducted as extracurricular activities [20]. Due to the fact that Polish and Ukrainian schools were equally dependent on the SSC, the financial situation of both communities and educational institutions can be seen as an equal chance for both national groups. In a Russian junior high school in Stanisławów, where because of lack of proper conditions gymnastics classes could not be conducted in the school year of 1908/1909, PE classes were taught in the open air under the guidance of a gymnastics teacher [21, p. 91]. For the purpose of improving the level of efficiency of teaching gymnastics, the SSC passed a decree introducing the following steps in 1908/1909:

The most popular motor game of those introduced by the SSC regulation (since 1904) among the Ukrainian junior high school students was football. According to the SSC report from 1909/1910, apart from junior high schools in Lvov and Krakow “it was most dedicatedly cultivated in the Russian junior high school in Tarnopol (7 teams) and in Sambor…”[22, p. 45]. The development of physical education in Ukraine was connected with the program of the ‘Sokił’ Ukrainian Gymnastic Society. The establishment of ‘Sokił’ was a result of actions undertaken by representatives of the Ukrainian elite, pedagogues and doctors led by Włodymir and Wasyl Nahirny. Since its establishment in 1894 ‘body exercises’ were being introduced to schools with the Ukrainian language [1, pp. 19-23]. During the times of Galician autonomy Ukrainian junior high schools were operating in the following places: Gródek Jagielloński – 1; Kamionka Strumiłowa – 1; Kołomyja – 1; Lvov – 2 (for boys and girls); Przemyśl – 2 (for boys and girls); in Tarnopol, Stanisławów, Jaworów and Stryj^{[ 7]}. They were administered directly by the State School Council. All decrees, regulations and memos issued by the educational authorities were in force both in Polish educational institutions and their Ukrainian counterparts.

The greatest contribution to the development of Ukrainian physical culture was the introduction of the ‘body exercises’ to schools. As it can be concluded from the reports of Ukrainian junior high school headmasters physical education classes for Ukrainian children were performed in accordance with regulations and memos issued by the SSC. The decree of the SSC dated 15th September 1890 on “rising the level of physical development of the youth in state and private schools with the status of state school” was a very significant step in development of physical education. This regulation indicated a possibility of teaching gymnastics, athletics, swimming, rowing, cycling, skiing as well as organizing trips. The regulation was later changed to the benefit of physical education of the youth, which can be concluded from the analysis of the SSC reports. Methodological conferences for the headmasters and PE teachers played also a significant role in improving the level of physical education. The headmasters in their reports made reference to regulations and instructions of the SSC, which introduced obligatory physical exercises in the junior high schools. The realization of PE classes is confirmed by school reports with information about the way physical development was being taken care of since 1896^{[ 8]}. The classes took place in autumn and spring (May-June). At the beginning (since 1897)^{[ 9]} [23, p. 37] there was 1 lesson per grade a week, to be later increased to 2 lessons. The number of lessons per grade was being increased gradually. Due to lack of PE teachers and gyms, school playgrounds, and later gyms and fields of the ‘Sokił’ and certain junior high schools were rented for gymnastic purposes. On the premises the gymnastic equipment was made accessible for the general public. The teachers in Ukrainian junior high schools were mostly doctors and teachers of other subjects, and the leaders of ‘Sokił’ after 1896. Besides gymnastics, athletics, recreational trips and games, since 1902/1903 also outdoor games and military exercises were conducted, wherever it was possible and in good weather conditions^{[ 10]} [24, pp. 25-26]. Physical education was also taken care of in junior high schools for girls. In the physical education section of the report of the Russian Institute for girls in Przemyśl established in 1895, the following description of the realization of the physical education program can be found: “Zwid” dyrekcij Licea Ruskowo Instituta dlja diwczat w Peremyśli, za rik 1904/1905. Ljubowicz Ewgień uczył 2 hodiny tyżnia dlia 1 oddieli (Report from the ‘liceum’ for girls in Przemyśl in the school year 1904/1905. Ewgenij Ljubowicz conducted two PE lessons per week in one grade) [31, p. 24]. “Zwid” direkcij Gimnzji z ruskim jazikom wykładiwym w Peremyśli, za rik 1908/1909. Ljubowicz Ewgień uczitel gimnastyki w 3 oddili po 2 hodiny…” (Report from the Russian junior high school for girls in Przemyśl in the school year 1908/1909. Ewgenij Ljubowicz conducted two lessons of gymnastics in three grades [32, p. 24].

The report on realization of the gymnastic program for girls in the private junior high school of the Wasylijanki sisters in Lvov in 1906/1907 includes a description of the organized games. Those were Zajac w kapusti, Turok, Piererwanyj korol, Chodi za mnoju, Podaj dalsze, Kit i misz, Jastrub i kwoczka, Poslidna para, Chapko, Wiziwacz i Tretjak^{[ 11]}. 17 pupils from grades 1 to 7 participated in the classes. The teacher prepared a syllabus based on the ministry’s guidance (1897). It used the Swedish method of teaching based on the following handbooks C. H. Liedbeka: Gymnastika dagofnin- gar for folkskolan,L. M. Torngren: Larobok i gimnastyk. Since April, the pupils participated in the gymnastics classes and they tried running various distances. They also organized three trips: to Janów, Zimna Woda and Brzuchowice [33, pp. 18-19].

In order to increase the time required for physical regeneration, according to the decision of the State School Council the time of breaks was lengthened. During these longer breaks motor games were organized under the control and guidance of the entire teaching staff [25, pp. 42-43].

In the Russian language junior high school in Przemyśl in 1907/1908 321 pupils took part in gymnastics lessons conducted in a ‘Sokił’ gym. From 1st May to 1st July the students participated in outdoor classes. The program of games included, for instance, cricket. Cycling trips (5-7 km) were also organized. The ground was rented for three months and the rent was 307 crowns. In winter, in the nearby mountains pupils were skiing and sledging (on the sledge track in Lipownica). They were also skating on the frozen San River and nearby ponds [27, p. 24]. From the 1908/1909 report it can be concluded that I. Bobersko’s instructions were followed, and the PE lessons were supplemented with the game of football w króżku ‘Kopana’ [27, p. 36]. Apart from this the program of ‘body exercises’, the program of the junior high school in Przemyśl included “Zabawi i gri ruchowi Iwan Boberski i Adrian Sitiematiczeskoho uczili na gimnazjalnim podwirju 2 razy w tyżni wid god 3–4 klim deszcziw dniw 12 hodin na 1 rodim 30 uczniw 1 lubo 2 klasy... likcija ćwierć hodin musztra pił hodin gry reszta zabiw dla wipoczinku. Prowidnik zwaracał uwagu uczennikiw na harnost i ład. Gry krużok, „Kapana” 22 uczastnikow 5-7 klimy, prostuczki, piekło, rurku, krokieta, plid i piłku. Ohoczi uczastniki hozali Sanem do Krasiczyna, kupiel zimoju poru w Sanie, zimoj hawzianka”^{[ 12]}[35, p. 63]. In the SSC report from 1908/1909 the condition of school buildings and gym equipment was described. Among the junior high schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction the best conditions were in the Academic Gymnasium in Lvov with a gym and a large yard. In Kołomyja and Przemyśl Ukrainian schools used the gyms of Polish schools and, the junior high school in Przemyśl had two fields. In Stanisławów, on the other hand, only one field was used, and the gym was under construction. In 1909 in Tarnopol a new building was still under construction [26, p. 13 and next]. The report from that junior high school mentioning order and discipline as well as bathing in the San in winter is especially interesting.

Table 1. The Polish minority among the educational minorities in Galician poviats dominated by Greek Catholics, based on the school records from 1908-1910 ^{[ 13]}

The curricula of Ukrainian junior high schools also included athletic exercises whose forms and contents were presented in annual reports of Ukrainian junior high school headmasters under the heading ‘gymnastics’^{[ 14]} [14, p. 7 and next]. The first note concerning the use of athletic forms in gymnastics classes is included in Zwid direkcji ck akademicznoj gimnazi u Lwowi za rok szkilnij 1904/1905. The lessons took place in Cisarski Lisek, also called Kajzerwald or Wulka^{[ 15]}. It took the students about 30 minutes to get there. The class leaders organized running games, which lasted about 2 hours [36, p. 23]. In the gymnastics syllabus in 1906/1907 certain classes in the gym were divided into parts, one of which consisted of 3 minutes of continuous running and 10 minutes of gymnastic exercises. In good weather conditions 100-metre runs and discus contests were organized. The winners received awards. After the 5th grade the pupils could participate in two sports circles (sportowych króżkiw) football and athletic. In the latter, apart from running they also participated in javelin and discus contests (2-1.5 kg, 2-2 kg)^{[ 16]} [37, p. 38]. For girls from the private junior high school, from grades 1-7 in 1907/1908, running competitions were organized [38, p. 10]. In the next school year, in the same school Swedish and German gymnastics classes were offered. A gymnastics class consisted of 6 parts, the last one being running. The lessons were conducted in the ‘Sokił’ gym in Lvov at 20 Ruska Street. In the 1908/1909 report from the Ukrainian junior high school for boys in Lvov, for the first time classes featured a division into grades. In the athletic exercises for each grade the distance, intensity as well as running time were gradually increased. The following athletic forms were used: 50 m, 100 m, 400 m, 1,000 m, and 3,000 m runs; high jump, far jump, long jump, pole vault; ‘stone cube’ throw, ball throw and discus throw [39, pp. 13-17]. The school curriculum (Rozdil spraw na poodinoki klasy) for the 1st grade consisted only of two athletic elements: 2-min run and long jump. In the 2nd grade jump over a pier and high jump were added. In the 3rd grade the run lasted 3 minutes and the curriculum included also long jumps, high jumps, far jumps with quarter- and half-turnings, discus and ball throws with both hands. In the 4th grade, in addition to the exercises from the 3rd grade, there were jumps with turn in midair. The gymnastics program for the 5th grade included 100 m run, 4 min. run, long jumps, high jumps over a rope, ball throws, discus and javelin. In the 6th grade apart from all the exercises from the 4th grade, there were also 1,000 m run, hurdles and throwing two objects with both hands. The program for the 7th grade included the following events: run, pole vault, and ‘stone cube’ throw. In the 8th grade apart from the 7th grade activities there was also a 3,000 m run [39, pp. 13-15]. Runs, jumps and discus and javelin competitions were classified separately.

Galician schools were the first secular institutions which undertook actions aimed at the improvement of children’ and youths’ health. “Body exercises” were introduced into school programs, which improved the students’ level of physical fitness. Tourism was developed followed introduction of military exercises [3, pp. 347-351].

The so-called ‘majówki’^{[ 17]} introduced before WWI as a form of recreational PE classes were continued in certain schools in the period between the wars. At the turn of the 19th century, they were gradually replaced with more popular a few-day group trips in the form of hiking or rafting, most often with the use of such means of transport as reined horses or carts. Their aim was to find out more about the region and places of historical, political and geographical interest (the Tatras, the Pieniny and Gorgany mountains)^{[ 18]}. The participants often carrying their own tents, rucksacks and mobile kitchens were hiking in Galicia and then close to the eastern border.

The Ukrainian minority educational system began operating after 1922, and in certain areas even after 1923, due to the outbreak of fights in 1918. The Ukrainian educational system was supervised by Polish educational authorities representing the Department of School Districts in Lvov, Stanisławów and Tarnopol^{[ 19]} [4]^{[ 20]}. The Ukrainian youth along with Polish children had to cope with all the problems of the Polish educational system [12, 13]. After World War I bad condition of educational institutions required organization of physical education structures almost from scratch. According to the official announcement of the State School Council in 1918, in the Lvov province there was a huge demand for teachers for folk schools. The existing shortages were partly due to losses resulting from the war, and they influenced both Polish (lacking 86 teachers) and Ukrainian (lacking 163 teachers) schools [5].

In the process of education of Ukrainian children national activists saw a chance for a continuing defense against Polonization. Physical education of the Ukrainian society was, on the other hand, a possibility for paramilitary, organizational and physical preparation, which was indispensable for achieving the future national aims. During school lessons the Ukrainians started physical education of pupils, which was later continued by organizations such as “Sokił-Bat’ko”, “Łuh”, “Płast”, and “Płaj”.